Rehabilitation and Reentry: Addressing the Challenges of Incarceration and Recidivism in the United States
Keywords:
Recidivism, Rehabilitation programs, Correctional education, Vocational training, Prison reentry, Reintegration, United States incarcerationAbstract
Background: The United States maintains the highest incarceration rates among high-income nations, creating persistent social and health disparities. Despite the presence of rehabilitation and reentry programs, recidivism remains a major concern, reflecting gaps in existing interventions.
Methods: Using a mixed-methods design, this study analyzed Bureau of Justice Statistics’ recidivism data (2005–2018) alongside semi-structured interviews with 40 participants, including formerly incarcerated individuals and reentry professionals. Quantitative analysis examined the impact of educational and vocational participation on reoffending, while qualitative insights captured lived experiences of reintegration.
Results: Findings showed that participation in both educational and vocational programs significantly reduced recidivism rates, with dual-program engagement yielding the strongest protective effect. Interviews revealed the transformative role of education in fostering confidence, while barriers such as employment discrimination, housing instability, and stigma continued to impede reintegration.
Conclusion: Rehabilitation and reentry efforts are most effective when implemented holistically, addressing both practical skills and emotional resilience. Expanding access to integrated education and vocational programs, coupled with supportive networks, can strengthen reintegration and reduce long-term recidivism.
Downloads
References
Wildeman C, Wang EA. Mass incarceration, public health, and widening inequality in the USA. Lancet [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2025 Aug 27];389(10077):1464-74. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30259-3
Nowotny KM, Seide K, Brinkley-Rubinstein L, et al. Public health and prisons: Priorities in the age of mass incarceration. Annu Rev Public Health [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2025 Aug 27];44:311-29. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-072621-105402
Binswanger IA, Stern MF, Deyo RA, et al. Release from prison—A high risk of death for former inmates. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2007 [cited 2025 Aug 27];356(2):157-65. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa064115
Pager D. The mark of a criminal record. Am J Sociol [Internet]. 2003 [cited 2025 Aug 27];108(5):937-75. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1086/374403
Morenoff JD, Harding DJ. Incarceration, prisoner reentry, and communities. Annu Rev Sociol [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2025 Aug 27];40:411-29. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145511
Harding DJ, Morenoff JD, Herbert CW. Home is hard to find: Neighborhoods, institutions, and the residential trajectories of returning prisoners. Ann Am Acad Polit Soc Sci [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2025 Aug 27];647(1):214-36. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716213477070
Bozick R, Steele JL, Davis LM, Turner S. Does providing inmates with education improve postrelease outcomes? A meta-analysis of correctional education programs in the United States. J Exp Criminol [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2025 Aug 27];14:389-428. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-017-9292-x
Duwe G, Clark V, Clark J. Are schools in prison worth it? The effects and economic returns of prison education. Am J Crim Justice [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2025 Aug 27];48:1040-67. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-022-09744-0
Davis LM, Bozick R, Steele JL, Saunders J, Miles JNV. Evaluating the effectiveness of correctional education: A meta-analysis of programs that provide education to incarcerated adults. RAND Corporation [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2025 Aug 27]; (Research Report). Available from: https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR266.html
Morenoff JD, Harding DJ. Incarceration, prisoner reentry, and communities. Annu Rev Sociol [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2025 Aug 27];40:411-29. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145511
Bushway S. Reentry and prison work programs. Urban Institute [Internet]. 2003 [cited 2025 Aug 27]; (Reentry Roundtable Discussion Paper). Available from: https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/59406/410853-Reentry-and-Prison-Work-Programs.PDF
Chouldechova A. Fair prediction with disparate impact: A study of bias in recidivism prediction instruments. arXiv [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2025 Aug 27]; (arXiv:1703.00056). Available from: https://arxiv.org/abs/1703.00056
Nesbit R. The role of mandated mental health treatment in the criminal justice system. arXiv [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2025 Aug 27]; (arXiv:2212.06736). Available from: https://arxiv.org/abs/2212.06736
Journal of Rawalpindi Medical College. Dermoscopic and clinical features of alopecia areata in Pakistani patients: a cross-sectional study [Internet]. 2025 Jan [cited 2025 Aug 25];28(4). Available from: https://doi.org/10.37939/jrmc.v28i4.2629
Journal of Biosciences and Health. Investigation of crystalluria and its association with urinary tract infections [Internet]. 2024 Dec [cited 2025 Aug 25];2(2):2024. Available from: https://doi.org/10.70749/ijbr.v2i02.348
Review Journal of Neurological & Medical Sciences. A narrative review of prevalence of HER2 positive invasive and non-invasive breast cancer [Internet]. 2025 Apr [cited 2025 Aug 25];3(1):236-252. Available from: https://doi.org/10.62019/kw5f4656
National Journal of Biological Sciences. Prevalence of brucellosis among febrile patients in Rawalpindi/Islamabad area [Internet]. 2025 Apr [cited 2025 Aug 25];5(2):13-19. Available from: https://doi.org/10.37605/v5i2/2
Biological and Clinical Sciences Research Journal. Deciphering the relationship between Janus kinase-2 (JAK-2) mutation and thrombocytopenia [Internet]. 2025 Jan [cited 2025 Aug 25];6(1):97-100. Available from: https://doi.org/10.54112/bcsrj.v6i1.1526
Biological and Clinical Sciences Research Journal. Clinico-hematological spectrum of non-leukemic myeloproliferative disorder [Internet]. 2025 Jan [cited 2025 Aug 25];6(1):163-167. Available from: https://doi.org/10.54112/bcsrj.v6i1.1544
Journal of Neonatal Surgery. Artificial intelligence in smart healthcare applications: benefits, challenges, and ethical considerations [Internet]. 2025 Aug [cited 2025 Aug 25];32(14s):7530-7536. Available from: https://doi.org/10.63682/jns.v14i32S.8889
History of Medicine. Prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and its association with chronic kidney disease among type-2 diabetic patients with the help of ultrasonography [Internet]. 2024 Sep [cited 2025 Aug 25]. Available from: https://doi.org/10.17720/bxr16n40
African Journal of Biological Sciences. Molecular cloning and in-silico insights into the FliC gene of Salmonella typhimurium for development of next-generation DNA vaccine [Internet]. 2024 Aug [cited 2025 Aug 25];6(14):4380-4394. Available from: https://doi.org/10.48047/AFJBS.6.14.2024.4380-4394
Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Klebsiella species in clinical specimens of both indoor and outdoor patients of tertiary care hospital, Rawalpindi [Internet]. 2024 Jun [cited 2025 Aug 25]. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12545970
A comparative study on biochemical profile among pre and post-sofosbuvir-treated in HCV patients, Pakistan [Internet]. 2024 May [cited 2025 Aug 25]. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11344706
A study on serum prolactin level and its relationship with thyroid stimulating hormone in infertile women in Pakistan. Kurdish Studies [Internet]. 2024 Apr [cited 2025 Aug 25];12(2). Available from: https://doi.org/10.53555/ks.v12i2.2879
Deciphering the dengue enigma: unraveling clinical, hematological, and serological signatures in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. J Pharm Tech Clin Pharmacol [Internet]. 2024 Mar [cited 2025 Aug 25];31(3). Available from: https://doi.org/10.53555/jptcp.v31i3.5107
Comparison of HbA1c levels in diabetic patients taking oral drugs and insulin. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol [Internet]. 2024 Jan [cited 2025 Aug 25];31(3). Available from: https://doi.org/10.53555/jptcp.v31i3.5255
Hyperprolactinemia: a potential factor in infertility – investigating the relationship and implications. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol [Internet]. 2024 Jan [cited 2025 Aug 25];31(3). Available from: https://doi.org/10.53555/jptcp.v31i3.5260
Hyperprolactinemia: a potential factor in infertility – investigating the relationship and implications. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol [Internet]. 2024 Jan [cited 2025 Aug 25];31(3). Available from: https://doi.org/10.53555/jptcp.v31i3.5265
Investigating the presence of fetal trisomy 13, 18, and 21 in Pakistani patients and its’ computational analysis. Int J Endors Health Sci Res [Internet]. 2022 Feb [cited 2025 Aug 25];10(1):78-85. Available from: https://doi.org/10.29052/IJEHSR.v10.i1.2022.78-85
Western B, Pettit B. Incarceration & social inequality. Daedalus [Internet]. 2010 [cited 2025 Aug 27];139(3):8-19. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_00019
Travis J, Western B, Redburn S, editors. The growth of incarceration in the United States: Exploring causes and consequences. National Academies Press [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2025 Aug 27]; (Report). Available from: https://doi.org/10.17226/18613
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
You are free to:
- Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
- Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
Terms:
- Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
- No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
