Neurochemical Correlates of Captagon and Crystal Methamphetamine Addiction in Iraq: A Focus on Dopamine and Total Protein
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.52783/jns.v14.1870Keywords:
Dopamine, Protein, Captagon, Crystal MethamphetamineAbstract
Background: Captagon (Kat) and crystal methamphetamine (crystal) are highly addictive stimulants that are widely used in Iraq. The neurochemical effects of these substances were examined in this study by comparing dopamine and total protein levels in users and a control group.
Methods: Blood samples were obtained from thirty control persons, fifty crystal addicts, and fifty Captagon addicts. The dopamine concentration was assessed utilizing an ELISA kit, whereas the determination of total protein levels was conducted using the Biuret method. Statistical analysis compared discrepancies between groups and the effects of age and body mass index (BMI).
Results and discussion: Dopamine levels were most significant among Crystal addicts, then those of Captagon addicts, and finally those of the control group. This indicates that dopamine release may have been elevated as a result of drug use. Crystal addicts had the lowest levels of total protein, which was considerably lower than the control group. This may be an indication of dietary deficits brought on by drug usage. The protein levels of captagon addicts did not differ significantly from those of the control group.
Variation in the impact of BMI on protein and dopamine levels was seen among the groups. In the lower BMI range (14-18.9), Crystal and control groups exhibited increased dopamine levels, whereas Captagon addicts exhibited comparable levels in both BMI ranges. Protein concentrations were marginally elevated within the lower BMI range in the control group. Age: Regardless of age, crystal users have consistently elevated dopamine levels (15-25 and 26-35). Within the younger age group, captagon addicts exhibited dopamine levels that were higher than the control group but lower than crystal users.
Conclusions: Addiction to Crystal and Captagon is correlated with unique modifications in levels of dopamine and protein. Crystal addicts demonstrated the most pronounced increase in dopamine levels and the lowest levels of protein, which may indicate neurochemical and nutritional alterations.
Downloads
Metrics
References
Harm, M., M. Hope, and A. Household, American Psychiatric Association, 2013, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edn, Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Anderson, J, Sapey, B, Spandler, H (eds), 2012, Distress or Disability?, Lancaster: Centre for Disability Research, www. lancaster. ac. uk. Arya. 347: p. 64.
Zhang, Y., et al., Allelic expression imbalance of human mu opioid receptor (OPRM1) caused by variant A118G. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 2005. 280(38): p. 32618-32624.
Fang, Y., et al., Neurobiological mechanisms and related clinical treatment of addiction: a review. Psychoradiology, 2022. 2(4): p. 180-189.
Nwonu, C., P. Nwonu, and R. Ude, Neurobiological Underpinnings in Drug Addiction. West African Journal of Medicine, 2022. 39(8): p. 874-884.
Feltenstein, M.W., R.E. See, and R.A. Fuchs, Neural substrates and circuits of drug addiction. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine, 2021. 11(4).
Koob, G.F., et al., Neurobiology of addiction, in Tasman’s Psychiatry. 2023, Springer. p. 1-51.
Koob, G.F. and M. Le Moal, Addiction and the brain antireward system. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 2008. 59: p. 29-53.
McLellan, A.T., et al., Drug dependence, a chronic medical illness: implications for treatment, insurance, and outcomes evaluation. Jama, 2000. 284(13): p. 1689-1695.
Koob, G.F. and N.D. Volkow, Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 2016. 3(8): p. 760-773.
Goldstein, R.Z. and N.D. Volkow, Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. American Journal of Psychiatry, 2002. 159(10): p. 1642-1652.
Moeller, F.G., et al., Psychiatric aspects of impulsivity. American journal of psychiatry, 2001. 158(11): p. 1783-1793.
Berlin, G.S. and E. Hollander, Compulsivity, impulsivity, and the DSM-5 process. CNS spectrums, 2014. 19(1): p. 62-68.
Baer, D.M., Cut-off and toxicity levels for drugs-of-abuse testing. MLO: medical laboratory observer, 2004. 36(13 Suppl): p. 10-11.
Chachan, N.E. and N.J. Al-Hemiary, Socio-Demographic, Clinical Characteristics and Risk Factors of Crystal Meth Use in Baghdad/Iraq. 2022, The Iraqi Council for Medical Specialization Baghdad, Iraq.
Al-Bayati, Y.K. and M.F. Abd, Determination of methamphetamine drug by GC-MS based on molecularly imprinted solid-phase used meth acrylic acid and acryl amide as functional monomers. Iraqi Journal of Science, 2017: p. 2022-2034.
م.س ,ﺧــــــــــــــــــﻠــــﻒ., PHYSIOLOGICAL, CYTOGENETIC AND MOLECULAR STUDY OF SAMPLE OF CAPTAGON
ADDICTS IN AL-RAMADI PROVENANCE. Journal of university of Anbar for Pure science, 2012. 6(1). Wise, R.A., Roles for nigrostriatal—not just mesocorticolimbic—dopamine in reward and addiction. Trends in neurosciences, 2009. 32(10): p. 517-524.
Mitchell, J.M., et al., Alcohol consumption induces endogenous opioid release in the human orbitofrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. Science translational medicine, 2012. 4(116): p. 116ra6-116ra6.
Caine, S.B., et al., Lack of self-administration of cocaine in dopamine D1 receptor knock-out mice. Journal of Neuroscience, 2007. 27(48): p. 13140-13150.
Volkow, N.D., J.S. Fowler, and G.-J. Wang, The addicted human brain: insights from imaging studies. The Journal of clinical investigation, 2003. 111(10): p. 1444-1451.
Norman, A.B., et al., The affinity of D2-like dopamine receptor antagonists determines the time to maximal effect on cocaine self-administration. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2011. 338(2): p. 724-728.
Durieux, P.F., et al., D2R striatopallidal neurons inhibit both locomotor and drug reward processes. Nature neuroscience, 2009. 12(4): p. 393-395.
Covey, D.P., M.F. Roitman, and P.A. Garris, Illicit dopamine transients: reconciling actions of abused drugs. Trends in neurosciences, 2014. 37(4): p. 200-210.
AL-Awadi, S.J., Association of the A1 allele of D2 dopamine Receptor gene Polymorphisms with Alcohol and Drug abuse among some of Iraqi Population. Iraqi journal of biotechnology, 2017. 16(1).
Alrawi, S.T.J., A. Humide, and M.D. Al-jeboori, Effects of Caper (Capparis Spinosa) and Acetic Acid on Lipid Profile and Protein Concentration in the Serum of Albino Mice. Iraqi Journal of Science, 2021: p. 2163-2168.
Rust, M.B., et al., Neurogenic mechanisms contribute to hypertension in mice with disruption of the K-Cl cotransporter KCC3. Circulation research, 2006. 98(4): p. 549-556.
Alredainy, R. and F. Al Lami, Overweight and Obesity in A Sample of Primary School Children in Baghdad. The Iraqi Postgraduate Medical Journal, 2016. 15(4): p. 452.
Herzig, M., et al., Altering environmental conditions induce shifts in simulated deep terrestrial subsurface bacterial communities-Secretion of primary and secondary metabolites. Environ Microbiol, 2023.
Lin, M., D. Sambo, and H. Khoshbouei, Methamphetamine Regulation of Firing Activity of Dopamine Neurons. J Neurosci, 2016. 36(40): p. 10376-10391.
Choi, M.R., et al., Renal dopaminergic system: Pathophysiological implications and clinical perspectives. World J Nephrol, 2015. 4(2): p. 196-212.
Kenny, P.J., Common cellular and molecular mechanisms in obesity and drug addiction. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2011. 12(11): p. 638-651.
Dela Peña, I., R. Gevorkiana, and W.X. Shi, Psychostimulants affect dopamine transmission through both dopamine transporter-dependent and independent mechanisms. Eur J Pharmacol, 2015. 764: p. 562-570.
Wise, R.A. and M.A. Robble, Dopamine and Addiction. Annu Rev Psychol, 2020. 71: p. 79-106.
Gough, B., et al., Propentophylline increases striatal dopamine release but dampens methamphetamine-induced dopamine dynamics: A microdialysis study. Neurochemistry International, 2014. 76: p. 109-113.
He, Q., et al., Exercise intervention can reduce the degree of drug dependence of patients with amphetamines/addiction by improving dopamine level and immunity and reducing negative emotions. Am J Transl Res, 2021. 13(3): p. 1779-1788.
Mathar, D., et al., A potential link between gambling addiction severity and central dopamine levels: Evidence from spontaneous eye blink rates. Sci Rep, 2018. 8(1): p. 13371.
Jones, C.M., et al., Methamphetamine use in the United States: epidemiological update and implications for prevention, treatment, and harm reduction. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 2022. 1508(1): p. 3-22.
Kohno, M., et al., Neuroinflammation in addiction: A review of neuroimaging studies and potential immunotherapies. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 2019. 179: p. 34-42.
Halpin, L.E., W.T. Gunning, and B.K. Yamamoto, Methamphetamine causes acute hyperthermia- dependent liver damage. Pharmacol Res Perspect, 2013. 1(1): p. e00008.
Carbone, J.W. and S.M. Pasiakos, Dietary Protein and Muscle Mass: Translating Science to Application and Health Benefit. Nutrients, 2019. 11(5).
Taqwa M. Ahmad and N.A. Al-Bakri, Effect of Zinc drug on amino acid concentration in liver of white mice, Mus musculus. International Journal of Drug Delivery Technology, 2022. 12(4): p. 1838-1843.
Effect of Eight Weeks of Interval Training on Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) Gene Expression in Hippocampal Tissue in Methamphetamine-dependent Rats (Crystal). Journal of North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, 2023.
Farsak, H.A., et al., Acute nephrotoxicity an unusual side effect or adverse toxicity of Captagon. International Clinical Pathology Journal, 2018.
Pedersen, K.W., et al., Sex- and Lifestyle-Related Factors are Associated with Altered Hepatic CYP Protein Levels in People Diagnosed with Mental Disorders. Drug Metab Dispos, 2023. 51(9): p. 1169-1176.
Shalash, W.K. and Z.H. Kadri, Evaluation of Malondialdehyde, C-reactive Protein and DNA Damage Related with the Smoking Habit by Comet Assay in Iraq.
Fadhel, J.F. and M.A. Gathwan, Detection of lead and cadmium in types of chips from local markets in Baghdad. Eurasian Chemical Communications, 2022. 4(10): p. 1026-1032.
AL-Musawi, M., H. Al-Shmgani, and G.A. Al-Bairuty, Histopathological and biochemical comparative study of copper oxide nanoparticles and copper sulphate toxicity in male albino mice reproductive system. International journal of biomaterials, 2022. 2022.
Weerakoon, S.M., et al., Longitudinal effect of prenatal polydrug use and birthweight status on pediatric growth. Children's Health Care, 2022. 52: p. 244 - 263.
Forrester, J.E., K.L. Tucker, and S.L. Gorbach, The effect of drug abuse on body mass index in Hispanics with and without HIV infection. Public Health Nutr, 2005. 8(1): p. 61-8.
Wiss, D.A., The role of nutrition in addiction recovery: what we know and what we don't. The assessment and treatment of addiction, 2019: p. 21-42.
Manza, P., et al., Age-related differences in striatal dopamine D1 receptors mediate subjective drug effects. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 2023. 133(1).
Shymaa, H.N.ن.ش. and م. Atta. Abd Al- Hussein Mousa tr s ﺪاﻟﺤﺴـــــzﻋـــــ |ﻋ, Knowledge of Paramedical Staff Regarding Drugs Addiction in Baghdad City/ Iraq ~} r اﻟﻤﺨــﺪرات إدﻣــﺎن ﺣــﻮل ﺔãاﻟــﺼﺤ اﻟــﻤﻬﻦ ذوي ﻣــﻌﺎرف اﻟﻤﺠــــﻠﺔ اﻟــــﻌﺮاﻗــــãﺔ اﻟــــﻮﻃــــﻨãﺔ ﻟــــﻼﺧــــﺘﺼﺎﺻــــﺎت Specialties Nursing of Journal National Iraqi .ﻣــــﺪﻳــــﻨﺔ òــــﻐﺪاد ñ اﻟــــﻌﺮاق 35-50. p. (1):اﻟﺘﻤ¢£ﻀãﺔ, .2018 31
Berry, A.S., et al., Aging Affects Dopaminergic Neural Mechanisms of Cognitive Flexibility. J Neurosci, 2016. 36(50): p. 12559-12569.
Baum, J.I., I.Y. Kim, and R.R. Wolfe, Protein Consumption and the Elderly: What Is the Optimal Level of Intake? Nutrients, 2016. 8(6).
Norman, K., U. Haß, and M. Pirlich, Malnutrition in Older Adults-Recent Advances and Remaining Challenges. Nutrients, 2021. 13(8).
Mercier, S., et al., Chronic inflammation alters protein metabolism in several organs of adult rats. J Nutr, 2002. 132(7): p. 1921-8.
Jimenez-Gutierrez, G.E., et al., Molecular Mechanisms of Inflammation in Sarcopenia: Diagnosis and Therapeutic Update. Cells, 2022. 11(15).
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
You are free to:
- Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
- Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
Terms:
- Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
- No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
